Discoveries on the basis of Deductive Reasoning Reading Answers is an IELTS Reading Answer that contains 14 questions and needs to be completed within 20 minutes. The questions set includes questions such as Look at the following Descriptions and List of psychologists below. Match each description with the correct psychologist. Write the correct number A-D in boxes. And Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage? Write true, false, or not given.
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Discoveries on the Basis of Deductive Reasoning
Could it be that the very essence of reasoning itself is found in the way we behave? Clark Hull, an acclaimed American psychologist, theorized that it was, describing that reasoning is achieved by the way two “behavior segments” are combined in new ways to achieve goals. Howard and Tracey Kendler, who were two of Hull’s followers, used Hull’s principle ideas to design a reasoning test for children. In this test, children needed to learn how to use a machine in a two-step process. The children learned each of the two steps individually, with the first being to correctly choose and press one of two buttons, and the second to place a marble into a small opening. If both steps were completed successfully, a toy would be released as rewards to the children.
From this test, the Kendlers learned that although the children were able to learn each step, they were not able to “integrate” the two tasks without intervention. In other words, the children could not successfully perform the first step, pushing the button, and then proceed to the second step, inserting the marble into the hole, by themselves. This failure to independently integrate the steps led the Kendlers to believe that children of this age were not able to use deductive reasoning.
According the the work of psychologist and professor Michael Cole and his associates, some adults from specific African tribes are also unable to successfully complete the Kendlers' two-step test of deductive reasoning. However, this finding remains questionable in light of the findings of a similar test to the Kendlers’, which revealed that the African tribes people were, in fact, able to complete the test.
In this test, Cole substituted a locked box for the machine with the buttons, and then used two matchboxes of different colors. One of the matchboxes held a key for the locked box. Just like with the Kendlers’ test, Cole’s test also involved two behavior segments, these being to first open the right match-box to get the key, and second to use the key to open the box. However, Cole’s test differs quite a bit psychologically. Instead of subjects being presented with a strange machine, they are given familiar objects in a simpler context. Cole found the difficulty of 'integration' was greatly reduced here.
It seems that the same truth which Cole discovered can be extended to explain the deductive reasoning skills of young children. Psychologist Simon Hewson believes that perhaps the task’s difficulty is not in inferential processes themselves, but is instead tied to confusing features of the test apparatus, such as the button machine, as well as the context of the procedure being tested. When these factors are adjusted in order to prevent the inferential nature of the problem being affected, five-year-old children are able to successfully complete these tests as well as college students did in the Kendlers' test.
Hewson made two essential changes to the test in order to build on this idea. First, he replaced the button-pressing mechanism with drawers that a child could slide open and shut. This removed confusion on what to do with the original button apparatus from the first stage of training. Secondly, Hewson made sure that children understood that there was nothing special or magical about the marble, which was used to successfully complete the second step of the task and get the reward.
This is important because a child cannot easily comprehend a mechanism in which a marble put into a hole can open a little door. It would then be safe to say that the child will not assume that different marbles of identical size could be used the same way. But, to solve the problem, this assumption must be made. Hewson clearly demonstrated the functional equivalence of different marbles to the children by playing a 'swapping game.” Hewson's two modifications to the experiment led to a rise in success rates from 30 percent to 90 percent for five-year-old children and from 35 percent to 72.5 percent for four-year-olds. Strangely enough, for three-year-olds, Hewson’s changes did not lead to any improvement, and instead, there was a slight drop in performance from the change. Hewson's experiments showed that children faced with the Kendler apparatus experienced difficulty not related to reasoning, but to the nature of the tasks themselves, and that difficulty cannot be taken as proof that they are incapable of deductive reasoning.
Questions 29-36
Look at the following Descriptions (Questions 29-36) and List of psychologists below. Match each description with the correct psychologist. Write the correct number A-D in boxes Questions 29-36 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of psychologists
29. is cited as having demonstrated that earlier experiments into children's ability to reason deductively may have led to the wrong conclusions.
Answer: D
Supporting statement: Hewson's experiments showed that children faced with the Kendler apparatus experienced difficulty not related to reasoning, but to the nature of the tasks themselves, and that difficulty cannot be taken as proof that they are incapable of deductive reasoning.
Keywords: Hewson's experiments, deductive reasoning
Keyword Location: Para 7, Lines 10-11
Explanation: Hewson's findings directly challenged the Kendlers' conclusion that children were incapable of deductive reasoning, suggesting the test design was flawed.
30. experimented with things that the subjects might have been expected to encounter in everyday life, rather than with a machine.
Answer: C
Supporting statement: In this test, Cole substituted a locked box for the machine with the buttons, and then used two matchboxes of different colors... Instead of subjects being presented with a strange machine, they are given familiar objects in a simpler context.
Keywords: subjects, strange machine, objects
Keyword Location: Para 4, Lines 5-6
Explanation: Cole's test used familiar objects (boxes and matchboxes) rather than the "strange machine" used by the Kendlers.
31. appears to have proved that a change in the apparatus dramatically improves the performance of children of certain ages.
Answer: D
Supporting statement: Hewson's two modifications to the experiment led to a rise in success rates from 30 percent to 90 percent for five-year-old children and from 35 percent to 72.5 percent for four-year-olds.
Keywords: percent, children
Keyword Location: Para 7, Lines 6-7
Explanation: Hewson's changes to the apparatus (drawers instead of buttons, swapping game) resulted in a massive, dramatic improvement in performance for 4- and 5-year-olds.
32. is cited as famous in the field of psychology.
Answer: A
Supporting statement: Clark Hull, an acclaimed American psychologist, theorized that it was, describing that reasoning is achieved by the way two “behavior segments” are combined in new ways to achieve goals.
Keywords: Clark Hull, American psychologist
Keyword Location: Para 1, Lines 1-2
Explanation: The text refers to Clark Hull as an "acclaimed American psychologist," which is synonymous with being famous.
33. demonstrated that the two-stage experiment involving button-pressing and inserting a marble into a hole poses problems for certain adults as well as children.
Answer: C
Supporting statement: According the the work of psychologist and professor Michael Cole and his associates, some adults from specific African tribes are also unable to successfully complete the Kendlers' two-step test of deductive reasoning.
Keywords: Michael Cole, two-step test
Keyword Location: Para 3, Lines 1-3
Explanation: Cole's initial work found that certain African adults struggled with the Kendlers' (button/marble) test, showing the problem wasn't limited to children.
34. trained children separately in the two stages of their experiments with the use of marbles.
Answer: B
Supporting statement: The children learned each of the two steps individually, with the first being to correctly choose and press one of two buttons, and the second to place a marble into a small opening.
Keywords: children, buttons, marble
Keyword Location: Para 1, Lines 6-7
Explanation: The Kendlers' original test involved training children on two separate steps, one of which used a marble to get a reward.
35. devised an experiment that investigated deductive reasoning without the use of any marbles.
Answer: C
Supporting statement: In this test, Cole substituted a locked box for the machine with the buttons, and then used two matchboxes of different colors. One of the matchboxes held a key for the locked box.
Keywords: substituted, matchboxes
Keyword Location: Para 4, Lines 1-2
Explanation: Cole's adapted test involved matchboxes and a key, intentionally removing the marble from the procedure.
36. used a machine to measure inductive reasoning that replaced button-pressing with drawer-opening.
Answer: D
Supporting statement: First, he replaced the button-pressing mechanism with drawers that a child could slide open and shut.
Keywords: button-pressing, open and shut
Keyword Location: Para 6, Line 2
Explanation: Hewson made the modification of replacing the button apparatus with drawers.
Questions 37-40
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage? In boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
37. Howard and Tracy Kendler devised a two-stage experiment involving button-pressing.
Answer: TRUE
Supporting statement: Howard and Tracey Kendler, who were two of Hull’s followers, used Hull’s principle ideas to design a reasoning test for children. In this test, children needed to learn how to use a machine in a two-step process. The children learned each of the two steps individually, with the first being to correctly choose and press one of two buttons...
Keywords: Howard and Tracey Kendler, two-step process
Keyword Location: Para 1, Lines 4-6
Explanation: The text states the Kendlers' test was a two-step process and the first step involved pressing a button.
38. Michael Cole and his colleagues demonstrated that children performance on deductive reasoning tasks depends on features of the apparatus and procedure.
Answer: FALSE
Supporting statement: Psychologist Simon Hewson believes that perhaps the task’s difficulty is not in inferential processes themselves, but is instead tied to confusing features of the test apparatus, as well as the context of the procedure being tested.
Keywords: Simon Hewson, inferential processes
Keyword Location: Para 5, Lines 1-2
Explanation: This conclusion (that difficulty depends on the apparatus/procedure) is attributed to Simon Hewson, not Michael Cole and his colleagues. Cole's work focused on simplifying the context for adults.
39. All Hewson's experiments used marbles of the same size.
Answer: NOT GIVEN
Explanation: Hewson used the "swapping game" to show the equivalence of different marbles. However, the text does not specify if these "different marbles" were different in color, size, or both, so we cannot confirm the statement.
40. Hewson's modifications resulted in a higher success rate for children of all ages.
Answer: FALSE
Supporting statement: Strangely enough, for three-year-olds, Hewson’s changes did not lead to any improvement, and instead, there was a slight drop in performance
Keywords: three-year-olds, improvement, slight drop
Keyword Location: Para 7, Lines 7-8
Explanation: The statement is contradicted because the changes did not result in a higher success rate for three-year-olds; their performance slightly dropped.
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